Secondary batteries, also known as rechargeable batteries, have storage abilities that set them apart from traditional non-rechargeable or primary batteries. Like primary batteries, secondary batteries contain a positive electrode, a negative electrode, and an electrolyte. However, secondary batteries are designed such that chemical reactions at the electrodes can be reversed by applying an external electrical current, allowing the battery to be recharged and reused multiple times.
Common Types of Secondary Battery
Lead-Acid Batteries
One of the earliest rechargeable battery types still in widespread use today is the lead-acid battery. Originally invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté, lead-acid batteries use lead oxide for the positive electrode and metallic lead for the negative electrode with sulfuric acid as the electrolyte. While lower in energy density than newer battery chemistries, lead-acid batteries remain popular due to their low cost, high surges of power, and ability to withstand abuse from overcharging. Common applications include starting motor vehicles and backup power for emergency lighting.
Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) Batteries
Nickel-cadmium or NiCd batteries were first commercialized in 1910 and were a major improvement over early lead-acid batteries. NiCd batteries utilize nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium for the electrodes with an alkaline potassium hydroxide electrolyte. They provide good energy density, long cycle life, and can deliver high currents over a wide temperature range. However, NiCd batteries contain toxic cadmium and have largely been replaced by safer and higher-capacity lithium-ion batteries. Remaining uses include power tools, medical equipment, and spacecraft applications.
Lithium-Ion Batteries
Now the dominant Secondary Battery chemistry worldwide, lithium-ion or Li-ion batteries were commercialized in 1991 and have revolutionized portable electronics. Li-ion batteries replace the metallic lithium anode used in early prototypes with a carbon anode, a lithium cobalt oxide cathode, and a non-aqueous liquid lithium salt electrolyte. Key advantages over previous chemistries include higher energy density, no memory effect, and lower self-discharge. Beyond consumer devices, Li-ion batteries increasingly power electric vehicles and are being investigated for large-scale grid energy storage applications. Continuous improvements have expanded energy capacity while maintaining excellent power handling and cycling ability.
Advancements in Secondary Battery Technology
Solid-State Batteries
One of the most promising next-generation battery types currently under intensive research is solid-state batteries. They aim to replace the flammable liquid electrolytes used in all commercial secondary batteries today with solid electrolytes. This offers the potential for dramatically improved safety along with higher energy densities. While technical hurdles remain, the development of solid electrolyte interphase-stabilized lithium metal anodes and sulfide-based solid electrolytes have enabled all-solid-state batteries with capacities exceeding standard Li-ion cells. Widespread commercialization may arrive within the next decade for applications like electric vehicles seeking extended range.
Nanotechnology Advances
At the nanoscale level, new materials are being engineered to optimize secondary battery performance. Nanowires, nanorods, and nanotubes of silicon, tin, and other lithium-alloying metals show promise as next-generation anode materials. When fabricated as nanostructures, these high-capacity materials can undergo lithium ion insertion and extraction without pulverizing like bulk materials. Researchers are also using nanoparticle coatings to stabilize battery electrolytes and electrodes against degradation over many charge-discharge cycles. Continued progress in nanotechnology promises secondary batteries with even higher energy densities at reduced costs.
From the initial lead-acid designs to today’s advanced Li-ion and solid-state prototypes, continuous innovation in secondary battery technology has been crucial to powering the technologies of the modern era. Whether through incremental improvements or disruptive new chemistries, batteries able to store and deliver electrical energy efficiently after thousands of cycles will remain a high priority. By further optimizing materials and designs at the nanoscale, it seems certain that tomorrow’s rechargeable power sources will surpass today’s in energy capacity, safety, and lifespan to enable even more advanced applications.
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